This study compared the long-term reproducibility of home blood pressure (BP) in comparison with office BP in children and adolescents. Forty-eight subjects (27 boys, mean age 11.3+/-3.1 (s.d.) years) recruited from the Arsakeion school study because of elevated office and/or home BP were assessed with office (1 visit, mercury sphygmomanometer) and home BP measurements (3 days, electronic devices) in two assessments 17+/-4.9 months apart (range 10-26 months). Home and office BP were compared on the basis of the following criteria: (a) s.d. of mean BP; (b) s.d. of differences; (c) variation coefficient (CV); (d) concordance correlation coefficient (CCC); (e) test-retest correlations; (f) correlation with ambulatory BP. (a) The s.d. of mean home BP was lower than that of office BP in both the initial (home BP 9.1/7.1 mm Hg, systolic/diastolic; office BP 13.1/8.0 mm Hg) and the second assessment (9.2/6.0 and 14.9/11.5 respectively). (b) The s.d. of differences was lower for home BP (8.3/6.5 mm Hg, systolic/diastolic) than for office BP (13.9/10.7 mm Hg). (c) The CV of home BP (5.3/6.6, systolic/diastolic) was lower than that of office BP (8.2/10.9). (d) The CCC of home BP (0.54/0.50, systolic/diastolic) was higher than that of office BP (0.51/0.41). (e) Test-retest correlations were closer for home BP (r=0.58/0.52, systolic/diastolic) than for office BP (0.51/0.44). (f) Awake ambulatory BP was more closely associated with home (r=0.77/0.40, systolic/diastolic) than with office BP (0.65/0.24). These data suggest that in children and adolescents the long-term reproducibility of home BP is superior to that of office measurements.

A school-based screening with anthropometric and blood pressure (BP) measurements was performed in adolescents aged 12-17 years in the island of Samos, Greece, in 2004 and also in 2007. A total of 446 adolescents were included in the analysis in 2004 and 558 in 2007. The 2007 study population had higher levels of body mass index (BMI) (P<0.05) and systolic and diastolic BP (P<0.001), compared with 2004. The prevalence of high BP was 16.1% in 2004 and 22.9% in 2007 (P<0.01 for difference). Mean age-, sex- and BMI-adjusted BP increase was 4.1/10.5 mm Hg (systolic/diastolic). In multivariate analysis, BMI, male gender and age, but also modifiable factors (lack of physical activity, breakfast skipping, smoking and low milk consumption) were associated with increased BP levels in the study population. These data indicate that further to BMI, other factors such as adverse lifestyle and dietary habits appear to be associated with elevated BP levels in adolescents. Moreover, rising trends seem to characterize the prevalence of high BP.

The blood pressure (BP) waveform varies substantially between the peripheral conduit (brachial) and the central elastic (aorta) arteries mainly do a gradual increase of systolic BP, as the wave propagates distally. This phenomenon is called BP amplification and is principally generated by the presence of arterial stiffness gradient and wave reflections along the arterial bed. More and more clinical studies suggest that central BP may provide additional information regarding cardiovascular risk beyond peripheral BP. Arterial properties and thus pressure amplification, are modulated by age, cardiovascular risk factors, vasoactive substances and drugs. Recent evidence suggests, beyond any doubt, that antihypertensive drugs affect peripheral and central BP differentially and alter pressure amplification. The aim of the present review (Part II) is to summarize the available evidence regarding: (i) the specific class-effect of antihypertensive drugs on central BP beyond peripheral BP, as well as the potential underlying hemodynamic mechanisms, (ii) head to head comparison of the effect of different classes of antihypertensive drugs on central BP, (iii) the effect of combination drug treatment on central BP. Finally to attempt an interpretation of the clinical trials in hypertension, which classically record brachial BP, based on the results of studies which assessed central BP. Several conclusions were drawn. First, it is clear that there are important differences between the classes of antihypertensive drugs regarding their effects on BP amplification. Second, it seems that the newer antihypertensive drugs [angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs), angiotensin receptor blockers and dihydropyridine calcium blockers], as well as nitrates, have a more beneficial effect on BP amplification than the older drugs (diuretics and BBs). Third, there is compelling evidence regarding the detrimental effect of BBs (mainly atenolol) on central BBs and convincing evidence that ACEIs increase BP amplification.

Obesity is related to office blood pressure (OBP). Important discrepancies exist between OBP and home blood pressure (HBP), providing complementary information for the management of hypertension. The association between obesity and HBP has not been investigated in children. The evidence on the role of obesity in the predominance of systolic blood pressure (SBP) over diastolic (DBP) in paediatric hypertension is limited. A total of 778 healthy subjects aged 6-18 years were recruited in this study. OBP and HBP were measured using electronic devices validated in children. Anthropometric measurements were measured and expressed as z-scores for height or age. Among all indices of obesity (z-scores), body mass index (BMI) showed the best association with BP. The effect of obesity (BMI) was more pronounced on: (i) SBP than DBP and (ii) H-SBP than O-SBP (O-SBP: r2=0.09, O-DBP: r2=0.05, H-SBP: r2=0.12, H-DBP: r2=0.06). The prevalence of systolic hypertension was higher than that of diastolic hypertension. This difference was significant only in office readings and independent from obesity (normal weight: 6.3% systolic hypertension versus 1.2% diastolic; obese: 37.9% versus 6.9%, P<0.05 for both). These data imply that in children and adolescents the z-score of BMI is the most appropriate index of the association between BP and obesity. It also suggests that obesity is probably more closely associated with home than office BP. Finally, although obesity appears to affect SBP more than DBP, these results suggest that the predominance of systolic hypertension in children and adolescents might not be only related to obesity but also to the measurement setting (office).

The surge in blood pressure (BP) upon rising after waking in the morning has been associated with increased risk of target organ damage and cardiovascular events. The reproducibility of this phenomenon within the same 24-h period was tested in subjects with a siesta during ambulatory BP monitoring by assessing the morning surge (MS) vs. the evening surge (ES) after siesta. Ambulatory BP recordings with reported siesta from hypertensive subjects were analyzed. MS and ES were assessed using four different definitions. The intraindividual reproducibility was assessed using the standard deviation of differences between MS and ES, the concordance correlation coefficient, the coefficient of variation and the agreement between MS and ES in detecting "surgers" among hypertensive subjects (top quartile of the BP surge distribution). A total of 562 ambulatory recordings were analyzed (476 subjects, mean age 54.9+/-13.2 [SD] years, treated 47%). Average MS (16.3/14.4 mmHg, systolic/diastolic) was higher than ES (13.3/12.1 mmHg, p<0.001) due to higher post-rising BP in the morning (p<0.01). The intraindividual reproducibility was rather poor, with no clear differences among different definitions. However, there was about 70% agreement between MS and ES in the detection of "surgers" (systolic and diastolic, kappa statistic 0.18). These data suggest that, although the intraindividual reproducibility of the BP surge within the same 24-h period is rather poor, about 70% of the "morning surgers" were also "evening surgers." Thus, the BP surge might be an inherent pathophysiological characteristic of the BP behavior of an individual and deserves further investigation.

Preliminary evidence suggests that the morning surge (MS) in blood pressure (BP) is an independent predictor of cerebrovascular disease. However, the optimal definition of MS is uncertain. To compare the reproducibility of several MS definitions used in the literature, 132 untreated hypertensives were assessed with ambulatory BP monitoring twice, 2 weeks apart. Five MS definitions were compared. MS-1: the average BP of the first hour after rising minus the average BP of the first hour before rising; MS-2: BP 2 h after rising minus that of 2 h before rising; MS-3: BP 3 h after rising minus that of 3 h before rising; MS-4: BP 2 h after rising minus the average BP during sleep; MS-5: BP 2 h after rising minus the average BP of 3 consecutive readings, centered on the lowest reading during sleep. The reproducibility of each MS definition was assessed using the concordance correlation coefficient (CCC), the standard deviation of differences (SDD) and the coefficient of variation (CV) between repeated MS assessments, and the agreement in detecting "surgers," defined as subjects at the top quartile (Q4) of the MS distribution. CCCs were 0.20/0.30, 0.43/0.45, 0.53/0.51, 0.51/0.47, and 0.46/0.48 (systolic/diastolic) for MS-1 to MS-5 respectively; SDDs were 14.3/11.4, 12.1/9.9, 11.2/9.5, 10.3/8.2, and 11.9/9.8, respectively; CVs were 0.49/0.57, 0.44/0.39, 0.37/0.35, 0.36/0.31, and 0.27/0.24, respectively; and the agreement in detecting "surgers" was 69%/70%, 71%/76%, 75%/75%, 81%/83%, and 74%/75%, with kappa of 0.18/0.20, 0.23/0.36, 0.33/0.33, 0.49/0.53 and 0.29/0.31, respectively. There are important differences in the reproducibility of MS calculated by different methods. MS4 appears to provide the most reproducible definition of MS.

Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV), an integrated marker of segmental aortic stiffness, was recently proposed as one of the underlying mechanisms inducing orthostatic hypotension in the elderly with marked arterial rigidity. We examined the relationship between PWV (Complior; Colson, Paris, France) and orthostatic blood pressure (BP) changes, measured repeatedly, over a wide range of age and arterial stiffness. Sixty-nine hypertensive subjects (age, 37 to 76 years; 39 untreated and 30 treated) were studied. BP, in both sitting and erect position, was measured at two occasions a few weeks apart, and in between PWV was assessed by means of pulse wave analysis. In untreated hypertensive subjects, the orthostatic alterations in systolic, but not in diastolic blood pressure (DBP), were inversely related to PWV, independently from age, gender, mean BP, and diabetes mellitus. The greater the aortic stiffness the larger was the systolic blood pressure (SBP) decrease during upraises. On the contrary, no such association was found between PWV and orthostatic changes of BP in treated hypertensive subjects. These results suggest the presence of a pathophysiological association between arterial stiffening and BP postural changes. Antihypertensive drug treatment, as well as other factors that have not been evaluated in the present study, might have modulated this association. However, it might be argued that a causal association between arterial stiffness - disturbed baroreflex sensitivity - postural BP changes, even in subjects without pronounced vascular aging or orthostatic hypotension, is implied.

This document summarizes the available evidence and provides recommendations on the use of home blood pressure monitoring in clinical practice and in research. It updates the previous recommendations on the same topic issued in year 2000. The main topics addressed include the methodology of home blood pressure monitoring, its diagnostic and therapeutic thresholds, its clinical applications in hypertension, with specific reference to special populations, and its applications in research. The final section deals with the problems related to the implementation of these recommendations in clinical practice.

An appropriate cuff according to the individual's arm circumference is recommended with all blood pressure (BP) monitors. An electronic device for home monitoring has been developed (Visomat Comfort 20/40) that estimates the individual's arm circumference by measuring the cuff filing volume and makes an adjustment of measured BP taking into account the estimated arm circumference. Thus the manufacturer recommends the use of a single cuff for arm circumference 23-43 cm. The device accuracy was assessed using the European Society of Hypertension International Protocol. Simultaneous BP measurements were obtained in 33 adults by two observers (connected mercury sphygmomanometers) four times, sequentially with three measurements taken using the tested device. Absolute device-observer BP differences were classified into < or =5, < or =10 and < or =15 mm Hg zones. For each participant the number of measurements with a difference < or =5 mm Hg was calculated. The device produced 60/89/97 measurements within 5/10/15 mm Hg respectively for systolic BP, and 72/97/98 for diastolic. Twenty-three subjects had at least two of their systolic BP differences < or =5 mm Hg and three had no differences < or =5 mm Hg (for diastolic 27 and 1, respectively). Mean device-observer BP difference (systolic/diastolic) was 3.7 +/- 5.6/-1.5 +/- 4.7 mm Hg (4.7 +/- 4.9/ - 1.7 +/- 4.3 in arm circumference 23-29 cm [39 readings] and 3.1 +/- 5.9/-1.4 +/- 5.0 in arm 30-34 cm [60 readings], P=NS). In conclusion, the device fulfils the International Protocol requirements and can be recommended for clinical use. Interestingly, the device was accurate using a single cuff in a wide range of arm circumference (23-34 cm). This study provides no information about the device accuracy in larger arms.

Propagation of odontogenic masticator space abscesses is insufficiently understood. The purpose was to analyse pathways of spread in 30 patients with odontogenic masticator space abscess. The imaging findings in 30 patients (CT in 30, MR in 16 patients) were retrospectively analysed. CT and MR imaging depicted a masticator space abscess within: medial pterygoid muscle in 13 patients (43.3%), lateral masseter and/or pterygoid muscle in 14 (46.7%) and superficial temporal muscle in 3 patients (10%). In the lateral masticator space intra-spatial abscess extension occurred in 7 of 14 patients (50%). The sub-masseteric space provided a pathway in seven (70%). Extra-spatial extension involved the submandibular space only in 3 of 14 patients (21.4%). Medial masticator space abscesses exhibited extra-spatial spread only. Extension affected the parapharyngeal space and/or soft palate in 7 of 13 lesions (53.8%). MR imaging in comparison to CT increased the number of abscess locations from 18 to 23 (27.8%) and regions affected by a cellular infiltrate from 12 to 16 (33.3%). The sub-masseteric space served as a previously underestimated pathway for intra-spatial propagation of lateral masticator abscesses. Medial masticator space abscesses tend to display early extra-spatial parapharyngeal space and/or soft palate extension.